Child sex offenders

Offender characteristics

A report by the Australian Institute of Criminology (Sullivan, Faulconbridge, Bricknell, & McAlister, 2024) reviewed of police data on sex offending:

“Offenders/offending”:

• Unsurprisingly, 93% of alleged sex offenders were male
• Female offenders were, on average, younger – Males had a mean age of 37.2yrs (median age of 35.0yrs), while female offenders had a mean age of 24.8yrs (median age of 17.7yrs)
• Of all alleged sex offenders, 15.1% were aged between 10-17 years of age. Queensland had the highest percentage of 10-17yr old offenders at 24.8%.
• 51% of all alleged offenders had one or more child sexual offence (sex offenders in Qld and WA were more likely to be proceeded against for child sex offences (at 58% and 57% respectively).

“Victim/Survivors”:

• Of all male victims (n=778), 498 were children
• Of all female victims (n=5,154), 2,436 were children
• Of offenders with a child sexual offence (n=2,847), 34.4% were non-intimate family/partner, 31.7% were non-family, but known to the victim, and 15.6% were strangers (18.2% relationship was unknown)

Data from the Australian Childhood Maltreatment Study has shown that 19% of Australians report childhood sexual abuse perpetrated by an adult aged over 18, while 14% report sexual abuse perpetrated by an adolescent. Overall, known adolescents (excluding current or former romantic partners) are most reported as offenders of childhood sexual abuse (10%), followed by parents or caregivers in the home (8%), other known adults (8%), unknown adults (5%), adolescents who were current or former romantic partners (3%), institutional caregivers (2%), siblings (2%) and unknown adolescents (1%). Girls were more likely than boys to experience child sexual abuse by all classes of perpetrator except for institutional caregivers (Mathews, Finkelhor, Pacella, et al., 2024).

Data from the Australian Childhood Maltreatment Study shows that there have been significant declines in recent decades in child sexual abuse perpetrated by both parents and caregivers in the home (4% of 16-24-year-olds report sexual abuse perpetrated by parents/caregivers compared with 8% of 25–44-year-olds) and by other known adults (4% of 16-24-year-olds report sexual abuse perpetrated by other known adults compared with 8% of 25-44-year-olds). In comparison, there has been a significant increase in child sexual abuse perpetrated by adolescents who are current or former romantic partners (6% of 16-24-year-olds report sexual abuse perpetrated by an adolescent partner compared with 3% of 25-44-year-olds) (Mathews, Finkelhor, Pacella, et al., 2024).

Around one in ten (9%) of Australian men have sexually offended against children (i.e., have viewed pornographic material containing people below 18 years, have flirted or had sexual conversations online with a person below 18 years, have webcammed in a sexual way with a person below 18 years, have paid for online sexual interactions, images or videos involving a person below 18 years, and/or have had sex or sexual contact with a person below age 18 while over the age of 18 years) (Salter, Woodlock, Whitten, et al., 2023).

Approximately half of the Australian men who have sexually offended against children (5%) report sexual feelings towards children. The 5% of men with sexual feelings who have sexually offended against children differ from men with no sexual feelings or offending against children in that they are:

• More likely to be married.
• Almost three times more likely to be working with children.
• More likely to earn a higher income.
• Over four times more likely to report weekly binge drinking.
• Report approximately twice the rate of adverse childhood experiences.
• Are more than 25 times more likely to hold attitudes conducive to online child sex offending.
• Use the internet more frequently.
• Much more active on social media.
• Over 11 times more likely to watch violent pornography (Salter, Woodlock, Whitten, et al., 2023).

A Belgian study investigating the general personality traits of child sex offenders as compared to those who engage in nonsexual offending and a nonoffending control group found that the personality features of the child sex offenders were more similar to those of the non-offenders than to those of the nonsexual offenders. Additionally, the child sex offenders were more likely to show traits that impair socio-affective functioning (such as intimacy deficits and emotional regulation difficulties), while the nonsexual offenders were more likely to show traits that impair self-regulatory abilities. Further, a subgroup of child sex offenders that showed an enduring pattern of offending were found to display a constellation of personality traits typically found in antisocial individuals (Dillien, Brazil, Sabbe & Goethals, 2021).

As recorded in the 2017 Australian Bureau of Statistics’ Personal Safety Survey, more than 1 million women (1,000,500, or 11%) were shown to have experienced sexual abuse before the age of 15. Of these, more than 90% of victims knew the perpetrator (including approx. 55% who were abused by a relative). Similarly, 411,800 (5%) males were shown to have experienced sexual abuse before the age of 15. Of these male victims, more than 80% knew the perpetrator (including approx. 23% who were abused by a relative) (ABS, 2017).

In a review of child sexual abuse in Australian institutional contexts, police data from New South Wales showed that 4% of all recent allegations were reported as occurring in an institutional context, involving an extra-familial offender/person in authority (Bromfield, Hirte, Octoman & Katz, 2017).

A study of the characteristics of child sex trafficking offenders revealed differences in offender characteristics according to whether the offender was a trafficker, a producer or consumer, or in possession of child sexual abuse images. The majority of offenders were male for all offence types. Trafficking was associated with being African American and unemployed. Unemployment was the only significant predictor of engaging in child sex trafficking as either a sex buyer or producer. Those in possession of child sexual abuse images were most likely to be employed, with no history of prior arrests, and older than other offenders. Meanwhile, offenders who engaged in travelling or enticement of victims were younger, unemployed, single and without a known history of contact offending (Carpinteri, Bang, Klimley, & Black, 2017).

Recidivism

A study of police recorded offence data from four Australian states has explored the characteristics of contact child sexual offences involving an offender who has a prior recorded history of alleged child sexual offences (Morgan, 2022). This research found that a small proportion of child sexual assault offenders had a prior recorded history of child sexual offences (e.g., 3% of child sexual assault offenders in Queensland and Victoria had a recorded history of child sexual offending). Almost all of the alleged recidivist offenders were male, and almost all (96-100%) had perpetrated offences against new victims. Prior non-sexual offending was also common (63-85% of offenders), suggesting that persistent sexual offenders are characterised by a more general antisocial orientation. Transitions in relationship types were also relatively common, with a significant proportion of offenders transitioning from victims who were family members to non-family members. Results of this study suggested that recidivist child sexual offenders comprise a small group of motivated, persistent offenders who are willing to adapt their offending to target new and different victims in different contexts (Morgan, 2022).

A study of re-offending among 1,092 male offenders proceeded against for a child sexual offence in New South Wales between 2004 and 2013 found that sexual re-offending among child sexual offenders was rare, with re-offence rate of 7% after 10 years. Child sexual offenders were more likely to reoffend non-sexually than sexually – after 10 years, 42% of child sexual offenders had committed further non-sexual offences. The likelihood of both sexual and non-sexual reoffending was found to be highest in the two years following the first police proceeding for child sexual offences, and steadily decreased over time (Dowling, Morgan & Pooley, 2021). These findings indicate that for many, child sexual offending is part of a broader pattern of criminal behaviour (Dowling et al., 2021).

A review of 33 studies examining 55 independent samples of adult and juvenile child sexual offenders found that across most studies, rates of sexual reoffending were 15% or less, and rates of general reoffending where between 20-54%. The likelihood of both general and sexual reoffending was found to increase in the first few years after the index offence, then stabilise. Juveniles were also found to be more likely to reoffend both sexually and generally than adult offenders (Dowling, Boxall, Pooley, Long & Franks, 2021).

Sexual attraction to children

Around one in six (15%) of Australian men reports sexual feelings towards children (i.e., have sexual feelings towards people below age 18, would have sexual contact with a child aged below 14 years if no one would find out, has concerns about sexual feelings towards people below age 18, and/or the lowest age they typically find attractive is under 18 years) (Salter, Woodlock, Whitten, et al., 2023).

A systematic review of 30 studies on the prevalence of sexual interest in children across a range of community, clinical and forensic samples found a mean prevalence rate of 2% for sexual interest in pre-pubescent children (14 studies) and a mean prevalence rate of 24% for sexual interest in pubescent children (7 studies). This research found inconsistencies in methodology and definitions which led to wide variations in research findings (Savoie, Quayle & Flynn, 2021).

Qualitative research with young adults, aged 18-30 years, who report sexual interest in prepubescent children reported that their sexual interest in children emerged during adolescence, and as part of that process, they experienced a variety of emotions, including fear, shame, and feelings of isolation (Shields, Murray, Ruzicka et al., 2020).

Female offenders

It is well-established that females are a minority of the total number of child sexual abuse perpetrators, however female perpetrators are relatively common in cases involving intrafamilial trafficking. A recent study of ten adult male survivors of intrafamilial child trafficking for sexual exploitation found that 9 of the 10 participants reported that women either trafficked or abuse them sexually, and 6 participants reported that their mothers were primary perpetrators (Pacheco, Buenaventura, & Miles, 2023).

A review of research on female perpetrators of child sexual abuse has indicated that female offenders are a heterogeneous group, with no “typical” profile, however some common characteristics include: majority in their 20s or early 30s, are white, with few qualifications, and likely to have experienced abuse and adverse experiences in either childhood or adulthood (Augarde & Rydon-Grange, 2022).

A German nationwide representative survey found that female perpetrators were involved in 6.6% of child sexual abuse cases. Female perpetrators were more likely to be mothers than male perpetrators were to be fathers. In about half of all cases of child sexual abuse, there were found to be bystanders, i.e. people who knew about the abuse and did not do anything or looked away. The mother of the victim(s) was the most frequently named bystander, in over 20% of cases (Gerke, Lipke, Fegert & Rassenhofer, 2021).

A German prevalence study found that female perpetrators were involved in 10% of child sexual abuse cases. Victims of female perpetrators were significantly more often male, and a quarter of the adult female perpetrators were the mother figure of the child (Gerke, Rassenhofer, Witt, Sachser & Fegert, 2019).

Women have been found to perpetrate “abuse of trust” offences (i.e. sexual offences perpetrated when an adult is in a formal position of trust or authority abuses their position and engages in sexual activity with a young person aged 16 or 17 years old in their care) at a much higher proportional rate than men (13% of female-perpetrated child sexual offences compared with 1.6% of male-perpetrated child sexual offences) (cited in Christensen & Darling, 2019).

A recent meta-analysis conducted by Cortoni et al. (2017, cited in Christensen & Jansen, 2019) reported that, although only about 2% of sexual offences reported to police were said to be committed by females, victimisation surveys showed the figures to be around 12%.

The Australian Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse found in a comprehensive claims survey that 10% of 1,880 alleged perpetrators were female (cited in Christensen, 2018).

A study of child sexual abuse cases that were heard in Canadian criminal courts between 1986 and 2012 showed that 1.7% of cases involved a female as the accused. A comparison of male and female accused cases showed that female accused most often had family connections and were parents of the complainant; proportionally more male complainants were in female-accused cases than male-accused cases; female-accused offences were shorter in duration; and despite being similarly intrusive, female perpetrators received shorter sentences than male perpetrators (Weinsheimer, Woiwod, Coburn, Chong & Connolly, 2017).

Victims and offending

Sexual offenders report Adverse Childhood Experiences at higher rates than the general population (Levenson et al., 2016, cited in Kahn et al, 2020), and non-sexual offenders (Reavis et al.,, cited in Kahn et al., 2020). In a recent study, prevalence rates of ACEs in a sample of 679 individuals who committed sexual offenses were compared with a general population sample. Less than 16% of men with sexual offense histories had a score of zero on the ACE scale (compared with 38% of males in the general population) while almost half (46%) of the study sample endorsed four or more ACE items (compared with 9% of males in the general population). Notably, the odds of having experienced childhood sexual abuse and physical abuse were far higher compared with the general population.

A recent study of correctional clients on supervised release in the Midwestern United States, meanwhile, found that sexual assault in childhood was significantly associated with official charges for rape/sexual abuse despite controls for sex, race, age, arrest onset, total arrest charges, total adverse childhood experiences, Antisocial Personality Disorder, sexual sadism, and paedophilia. Age of onset of child sexual assault was also inversely associated with sexual offending (Drury, Elbert & DeLisi, 2019).

References

Augarde, S., & Rydon-Grange, M. (2022). Female perpetrators of child sexual abuse: A review of the clinical and empirical literature – A 20-year update. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 62, DOI: 10.1016/j.avb.2021.101687

Australian Bureau of Statistics (2017). Personal Safety Survey, Australia, 2016. Cat. No 4906.0. Canberra: ABS.

Bromfield, L., Hirte, C., Octoman, O., & Katz, I. (2017). Child sexual abuse in Australian institutional contexts 2008-13: Findings from administrative data. Sydney: Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse.

Carpinteri, A., Bang, B., Klimley, K., & Black, R.A. (2017). Commercial sexual exploitation of children: An assessment of offender characteristics. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 1-8.

Christensen, L. (2018). Professionals’ perceptions of female child sexual offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, DOI: 10.1177/0886260518785377

Christensen, L., & Darling, A. (2019). Sexual abuse by educators: A comparison between male and female teachers who sexually abuse students. Journal of Sexual Aggression, DOI 10.1080/13552600.2019.1616119

Christensen, L.S., & Jansen, K. (2019). Gender comparisons of offenders: Males and females who sexually offend against children. In Bryce, I., Robinson, Y., & Petherick, W. (Eds): Child Abuse and Neglect: Forensic Issues in Evidence, Impact and Management. Academic Press: doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-815344-4.00007-6

Dillien, T., Brazil, I.A., Sabbe, B., & Goethals, K. (2021). Personality features of sexual offenders who committed offences against children. Journal of Sexual Aggression, DOI: 10.1080/13552600.2021.2015468.

Dowling, C., Boxall, H., Pooley, K., Long, C., & Franks, C. (2021). Patterns and predictors of reoffending among child sexual offenders: A rapid evidence assessment. Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice no. 632. Canberra: AIC.

Dowling, C., Morgan, A., & Pooley, K. (2021). Reoffending among child sexual offenders. Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice no. 628. Canberra: AIC.

Drury, A.J., Elbert, M.J., & DeLisi, M. (2019). Childhood sexual abuse is significantly associated with subsequent sexual offending: New evidence among federal correctional clients. Child Abuse & Neglect, 95, doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104035

Gerke, J., Lipke, K., Fegert, J.M., & Rassenhofer, M. (2021). Mothers as perpetrators and bystanders of child sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 2021, 117, doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105068

Gerke, J., Rassenhofer, M., Witt, A., Sachser, C., & Fegert, J.M. (2019). Female-perpetrated child sexual abuse: Prevalence rates in Germany. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, DOI: 10.1080/10538712.2019.1685616

Kahn, R.E., Jackson, K., Keiser, K., Ambroziak, G., & Levenson, J.S. (2020). Adverse childhood experiences among sexual offenders: Associations with sexual recidivism risk and psychopathology. Sexual Abuse, doi: 10.11177/1079063220970031

Mathews, B., Finkelhor, D., Pacella, R., Scott, J.G., Higgins, D.J., Meinck, F., et al. (2024). Child sexual abuse by different classes and types of perpetrator: Prevalence and trends from an Australian national survey. Child Abuse & Neglect, 147, doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106562.

Morgan, A. (2022). Exploring the role of opportunity in recidivist child sexual offending. Australian Institute of Criminology Research Report no. 24. Canberra: AIC.

Pacheco, E.L.M., Buenaventura, A.E., Miles, G.M. (2023). “She was willing to send me there”: Intrafamilial child sexual abuse, exploitation and trafficking of boys. Child Abuse & Neglect, doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105849

Salter, M., Woodlock, D., Whitten, T., Tyler, M., Naldrett, G., Breckenridge, J., et al. (2023). Identifying and understanding child sexual offending behaviours and attitudes among Australian men. Sydney: University of New South Wales.

Savoie, V., Quayle, E., & Flynn, E. (2021). Prevalence and correlates of individuals with sexual interest in children: A systematic review. Child Abuse & Neglect, 115, doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105005.

Shields, R.T., Murray, S.M., Ruzicka, A.E., Buckman, C., Kahn, G., Benelmouffok, A., & Letourneau, E.J. (2020). Help wanted: Lessons on prevention from young adults with a sexual interest in prepubescent children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 105, doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104416

Sullivan, T., Faulconbridge, E., Bricknell, S. & McAlister, M. (2024). Sexual offending in Australia 2021–22. (Statistical Report no. 47). Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology

Weinsheimer, C.C., Woiwod, D.M., Coburn, P.I., Chong, K., & Connolly, D.A. (2017). The unusual suspects: Female versus male accused in child sexual abuse cases. Child Abuse & Neglect, 72, 446-455.